Full History of Turkey and United States Relations: From Alliance to Anxious Partnership

The relationship between the Republic of Türkiye and the United States is one of the most enduring, yet turbulent, partnerships in modern geopolitics. Often described as a "strategic partnership" with a foundation in shared interests, the history of Turkey and United States relations is a complex narrative of cooperation, crisis, and recalibration. From the battlefields of the Korean War to the tense negotiation tables regarding the F-35 fighter jet, these two NATO allies have navigated over seven decades of mutual dependency and deep-seated mistrust.

As we witness a new era of "leader-to-leader diplomacy" between President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and former President Donald Trump, understanding the historical baggage and strategic shifts that define this bilateral relationship is more critical than ever . This comprehensive timeline explores the key moments that have shaped the ties between Ankara and Washington.

TURKEY AND UNITED STATES RELATIONS THROUGHOUT HISTORY

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The Ottoman Era and the Birth of Diplomatic Relations (1830-1945)

While modern Turkey-United States relations are largely a post-World War II phenomenon, their diplomatic roots extend back to the early 19th century. The first formal engagement occurred not with the Republic of Turkey, but with the Ottoman Empire.

The First Contact

Official diplomatic interaction began in 1830 when the United States and the Ottoman Empire negotiated a treaty of navigation and commerce. This led to the establishment of the American Legation at Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1831. For most of the 19th century, relations were limited, focusing on trade and the protection of American missionaries operating within Ottoman lands. The United States also had military encounters with Ottoman subjects during the Barbary Wars, which set an early, albeit indirect, precedent for American involvement in the region.

World War I and the Interruption

The alliance between the Ottoman Empire and Germany during World War I led to a severance of ties. On April 20, 1917, following the United States' declaration of war against Germany, the Ottoman Empire cut diplomatic relations with Washington. It was not until after the collapse of the Empire and the Turkish War of Independence that relations were re-established. The modern Republic of Turkey, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, formally renewed diplomatic ties with the United States in 1927.

For the next two decades, relations remained cordial but distant. However, the end of World War II and the emergence of the Soviet threat would irrevocably alter this dynamic, pulling Turkey firmly into the American orbit.

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The Cold War: The Foundation of the Alliance (1945-1991)

The defining era for Turkey and United States relations was undoubtedly the Cold War. The strategic importance of Turkey, which controlled the Turkish Straits (the Bosphorus and Dardanelles) and shared a border with the Soviet Union, became immediately apparent to American planners.

The Truman Doctrine and NATO Accession

In 1945-1946, the Soviet Union exerted intense pressure on Turkey, demanding joint control of the straits and territorial concessions in eastern Anatolia. Viewing this as a clear expansionist threat, Turkey turned to the West. The United States responded decisively. In 1947, President Harry Truman announced the Truman Doctrine, designating Turkey and Greece as special recipients of anti-Soviet military and economic aid. This marked the definitive moment when Turkey aligned with the United States.

This partnership was solidified when Turkish troops fought alongside U.S. and U.N. forces in the Korean War (1950-1953). This contribution paved the way for Turkey's accession to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1952, transforming it into a key pillar of the alliance's southern flank. Soon after, the United States established military installations on Turkish soil, most notably the Incirlik Air Base in 1954, which would serve as a critical launch point for operations throughout the Cold War and beyond.

The Cyprus Crisis and the Johnson Letter

Despite the strategic alignment, the first major cracks in the relationship appeared in the 1960s over the island of Cyprus. In 1964, as ethnic violence flared between Greek and Turkish Cypriots, Turkey prepared to intervene militarily to protect the Turkish Cypriot minority. In response, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson sent a famously stern letter to Turkish Prime Minister Ismet Inönü, warning that NATO allies might not defend Turkey if a Turkish invasion of Cyprus led to a Soviet attack. The "Johnson Letter" deeply shocked the Turkish public and political establishment, breeding a deep sense of distrust and sowing the seeds of future anti-Americanism.

Tensions boiled over in 1974. Following a Greek-backed coup in Cyprus aimed at uniting the island with Greece, Turkey invaded and occupied the northern third of the island. In response, the U.S. Congress imposed a sweeping arms embargo on Turkey in 1975, a move that Ankara viewed as a profound betrayal by an ally. Turkey retaliated by suspending the U.S. status of forces agreement and taking control of American installations. The embargo, which lasted until 1978, caused lasting damage and pushed Turkey to reconsider its total reliance on Western weapons—a trend that would echo decades later.

Renewed Cooperation and the Gulf War

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the Iranian Revolution swiftly reminded Washington of Turkey's geostrategic value. The embargo was lifted, and in 1980, the U.S. and Turkey signed the Defense and Economic Cooperation Agreement. Relations warmed considerably during the 1980s under Prime Minister Turgut Özal, who pursued market reforms and aligned closely with the U.S.

This renewed partnership was tested and proven during the Gulf War (1990-1991). Turkey allowed the U.S. and coalition forces to use Incirlik Air Base to strike Iraqi forces and, after the war, to patrol the northern no-fly zone protecting Kurds. While this demonstrated Turkey’s value, it also exposed it to the economic fallout of the war and the subsequent power vacuum in northern Iraq, which allowed the PKK (Kurdistan Workers' Party) to establish safe havens.

The Post-Cold War Era and the War on Terror (1991-2015)

With the collapse of the Soviet Union, Turkey's importance as a frontline state briefly waned. However, the rise of new threats in the Middle East soon brought Ankara and Washington back into a complex, often fraught, collaboration.

The Iraq War Shock: "The Hood Event"

The most serious crisis in decades occurred in the lead-up to the Iraq War in 2003. In a dramatic move that shocked the Bush administration, the Turkish Parliament voted down a motion on March 1, 2003, to allow U.S. troops to open a northern front against Iraq from Turkish territory. This was a massive blow to U.S. military strategy.

Compounding the insult was the "Hood Event" in July 2003. U.S. special forces, acting on faulty intelligence, detained a team of Turkish special forces in Sulaymaniyah, northern Iraq. They were taken into custody with hoods placed over their heads—a deep humiliation for Turkish national pride. Although they were released, the incident cemented a perception in Turkey that the U.S. was untrustworthy and indifferent to Turkish sovereignty.

Divergence in Syria

The Syrian Civil War, beginning in 2011, became the next major battleground of wills. While both nations sought the downfall of the Assad regime, their methods and partners diverged catastrophically. The United States, seeking effective ground forces against the Islamic State (ISIS), partnered with the YPG (People's Protection Units) in Syria. Turkey considers the YPG to be the Syrian offshoot of the PKK, a designated terrorist organization that has waged an insurgency against the Turkish state for decades.

Ankara viewed U.S. support for the YPG—including arming the group directly in 2017—as an existential threat and a direct betrayal of the NATO alliance. This single issue poisoned the relationship more than any other in the 2010s, leading to direct military confrontation when Turkey launched operations like Euphrates Shield and Peace Spring to clear YPG forces from its border, actions strongly criticized by Washington.

The Era of Crisis and Realignment (2016-2021)

The failed coup attempt in Turkey in July 2016 dramatically altered the domestic political landscape and added new layers of friction to bilateral ties.

The Gülen Extradition and the S-400 Crisis

In the aftermath of the coup, the Turkish government accused the Pennsylvania-based cleric Fethullah Gülen of masterminding the plot and requested his extradition. The slow response from U.S. judicial authorities became a major source of resentment in Ankara.

Simultaneously, Turkey’s frustration with obtaining American air defense systems (Patriot missiles) led President Erdogan to strike a deal with Russia to purchase the advanced S-400 missile system in 2017. For the United States, a NATO member buying a critical military system from Russia was unacceptable. In 2019, the U.S. removed Turkey from the prestigious F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program, where Turkey was both a buyer and a production partner. The following year, the Trump administration imposed CAATSA sanctions (Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act) on Turkey’s defense procurement agency. For many in Washington, Turkey was drifting out of the Western orbit.

Other Contentious Issues

During this period, other disagreements further strained the alliance:

• Eastern Mediterranean Turkey’s maritime boundary disputes with Greece and Cyprus, and its drilling activities in contested waters, drew sharp rebukes from the U.S.
• Armenian Genocide Recognition In 2021, President Joe Biden officially recognized the events of 1915 as a genocide, a move Turkey has long argued is a misrepresentation of history, further angering Ankara.

A New Equilibrium? The Current State of Relations (2022-Present)

Just as tensions appeared insurmountable, the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022 forced a pragmatic reset. Turkey’s unique position allowed it to play a critical role that the U.S. needed.

The Ukraine War and NATO Expansion

Turkey used its good offices with both Moscow and Kyiv to mediate. Most notably, it brokered the Black Sea Grain Initiative in 2022, which allowed Ukrainian grain to reach global markets, a vital interest for global food security. Turkey's control over the Turkish Straits, exercised under the Montreux Convention, also allowed it to limit the passage of Russian warships into the Black Sea.

This newfound utility provided Turkey with leverage. It initially blocked Sweden and Finland’s bids to join NATO, demanding concessions regarding the extradition of individuals Turkey deems terrorists. After securing commitments, Turkey approved Finland in 2023 and finally Sweden in 2024. This greenlight cleared the way for the U.S. to advance a major sale of F-16 Block 70 fighter jets to Turkey, a deal finalized shortly after Sweden’s accession.

Leader-to-Leader Diplomacy and Future Prospects

Looking ahead, the relationship appears to be entering a phase described as "leader-to-leader diplomacy," characterized by direct engagement between Presidents Erdogan and Trump. Following their meeting in September 2025, symbolic gestures—such as Trump wearing an F-35 pin and Erdogan staying at Blair House—signaled a desire to move past previous slights.

Economic targets are ambitious, with both sides aiming to increase bilateral trade from roughly $33 billion to $100 billion. Recent agreements on LNG supply and civil nuclear cooperation suggest a broadening of the partnership beyond security.

However, deep structural issues remain. The U.S. continues to cooperate with the YPG-led Syrian Democratic Forces in northeastern Syria, a reality Turkey continues to condemn. Turkey's relationship with Russia remains multifaceted, including economic and energy ties that sometimes contradict the spirit of Western sanctions.

Yet, there is a growing recognition, as noted by the Stimson Center, that past embargoes inadvertently strengthened Turkey’s indigenous defense industry. Turkey is no longer just a buyer but a rising defense exporter, producing systems like the Bayraktar TB2 drone that have proven vital in conflicts from Ukraine to the Caucasus. This newfound strategic autonomy means Turkey now approaches the United States as a more assertive, self-reliant partner rather than a dependent client.

Final Words

The history of Turkey and United States relations is a testament to the durability of strategic interests in the face of constant political turbulence. From the life-or-death alliance of the Cold War to the tense frictions of the Syrian conflict and the high-tech drama of the S-400 crisis, the relationship has consistently proven to be both indispensable and dysfunctional.

As of 2026, the partnership is defined by a fragile pragmatism. The war in Ukraine has underscored Turkey’s irreplaceable geostrategic role, while its growing defense industry makes it a valuable, if difficult, ally. For the United States, managing ties with Turkey means balancing security cooperation with congressional concerns and regional alliances with Greece and the Kurds. For Turkey, it means navigating a path between the West and other global powers like Russia and China. This carefully managed "transactional" relationship may be the most stable version of the partnership available for the foreseeable future.